Can Machines/Computers Think Essays - Cognitive Science, Cognition

Can Machines/Computers Think? Can computers, robots, and software agents can literally be said to think? Humans think, chimps think, dogs think, cats and birds think. But do computers? For example, If computers can be made to think, then does that mean that humans are a kind of robot and their brains a kind of computer; a neurocomputer? One of the deeper issues here is that the term thinking is ambiguous in at least two ways: it can include being conscious of one's environment (surroundings), one's personal feelings and thoughts, etc., or it can mean cogitate, learn, plan, and solve problems, where these latter terms pick out mental events that may or may not be conscious. The idea that machines could think occurred to the very first computer builders and programmers. The Turing t es t is a test for intelligence in machines. In 1950, Alan Turing published, Computing Machinery and Intelligence where he described a game he called the imitation game involving a human judge conversing only in written text with a second human and a language-using computer, each hidden away in separate rooms (3 rooms total). The point of the game is for the computer to converse in such a human-like way with the judge that the judge cannot tell the second human from the computer. The computer wins if the judge cannot tell which conversant is the human and which the computer is. Turing's point is that, were a computer to successfully and repeatedly pass such a test, we should then regard the computer as intelligent on the human level. To date, no computer has passed the Test reliably and often. While we don't know what thought or intelligence is, essentially, and while we're very far from agreed on what things do and don't have it, almost everyone agrees that hum ans think, and agrees with Descartes that our intelligence is amply manifest in our speech. Along these lines, Alan Turing suggested that if computers showed human level conversational abilities we should, by that, be amply assured of their intelligence. Turing continues, We may now ask the question, what will happen when a machine takes the part of A in this game?" These questions replace our original, "Can machines think?" This test may serve, as Turing notes, "to test not just for shallow verbal dexterity, but for background knowledge and underlying reasoning ability as well, since interrogators may ask any question or pose any verbal challenge they choose". Regarding this test Turing famously predicted that in about fifty years' time by the year 2000 it will be possible to program computers to make them play the imitation game so well that an average interrogator will have no more than 70 per cent chance of making the correct identification after five minutes of questioning. It is important to recognize that Turing proposed his test as a qualifying test for human-level intelligence, not as a disqualifying test for intelligence. So, from the failure of machines to pass this test, we can infer neither their complete lack of intelligence nor, that their thought is not up to the human level. Nevertheless, the manners of current machine failings clearly bespeak deficits of wisdom and wit, not just an inhuman style. Still, defenders of the Turing test claim we would have ample reason to deem them intelligent - as intelligent as we are - if they could pass this test. The extent to which machines seem intelligent depends first, on whether the work they do is intellectual or manual. Let's say that Turing is correct, and that it is imaginable to build a computer that can imitate human intelligence in such a way that it is indistinguishable from real human intelligence. Can we then conclude that the computer indeed thinks? The difficulty with questions like this is, what do we mean by thinking? What do we need for genuine thinking to occur? Consciousness? Understanding? These are not the same things. I am not always conscious of what happens in my mind, and when I am conscious of things, it may well be that I don't understand anything. According to philosopher John Searle, it is understanding that we are after. Let's follow Searle in this respect,

Free Essays on Young Turks

People are almost never happy with what they have. They are always wanting something different, and when they get what they think they want, they change their minds and want something else. This is an ongoing cycle in many cultures. The Middle Eastern society is no exception. Countless reform movements and revolutions mark the history of this region. In the early twentieth century, one of these reform movements arose. This group of revolutionaries were coined the â€Å"Young Turks†. However similar, this group differed in many ways from earlier movements. The Young Turks were generally well educated, they came from jobs as civil servants, and also a great number were students from the University in Istanbul. The earlier groups such as the Young Ottomans, and the Tanzimat, were from upper class families in the aristocracy, this is definitely not true of the Young Turks. The Young Turks also wanted a return of the Constitution and Parliament. This is also true of the Young Ottomans, but not of the Tanzimat. A major difference between these three movements is their emphasis on Islam. The Young Turks had by far the least emphasis on Islam. They were more focused on a Turkish nation which was muslim, than being muslim first and Turkish second. The Young Turks also envisioned an empire of only Turkish speaking muslims, and not of an empire encompassing all the Ottoman lands and other races and ethnic groups which were encompassed therein. Even though it wasn’t their original concern, the movement of the Young Turks is the first real step toward creating a unified muslim nation. In my opinion, they realized they weren’t able to control all the different lands which had been conquered by the Ottoman Empire, and they didn’t want to. They wanted to create a Turkish nation which only included Turkish speakers. They did not intend this to be a geographic boundary of the nation. The Young Turks planned on the nation... Free Essays on Young Turks Free Essays on Young Turks People are almost never happy with what they have. They are always wanting something different, and when they get what they think they want, they change their minds and want something else. This is an ongoing cycle in many cultures. The Middle Eastern society is no exception. Countless reform movements and revolutions mark the history of this region. In the early twentieth century, one of these reform movements arose. This group of revolutionaries were coined the â€Å"Young Turks†. However similar, this group differed in many ways from earlier movements. The Young Turks were generally well educated, they came from jobs as civil servants, and also a great number were students from the University in Istanbul. The earlier groups such as the Young Ottomans, and the Tanzimat, were from upper class families in the aristocracy, this is definitely not true of the Young Turks. The Young Turks also wanted a return of the Constitution and Parliament. This is also true of the Young Ottomans, but not of the Tanzimat. A major difference between these three movements is their emphasis on Islam. The Young Turks had by far the least emphasis on Islam. They were more focused on a Turkish nation which was muslim, than being muslim first and Turkish second. The Young Turks also envisioned an empire of only Turkish speaking muslims, and not of an empire encompassing all the Ottoman lands and other races and ethnic groups which were encompassed therein. Even though it wasn’t their original concern, the movement of the Young Turks is the first real step toward creating a unified muslim nation. In my opinion, they realized they weren’t able to control all the different lands which had been conquered by the Ottoman Empire, and they didn’t want to. They wanted to create a Turkish nation which only included Turkish speakers. They did not intend this to be a geographic boundary of the nation. The Young Turks planned on the nation...

Analyse the association between variables Assignment

Analyse the association between variables - Assignment Example The contention was to find a simple equation that could represent the presented proposition with ease (Witte & Witte, 2009). This was followed by a calculation of the correlation coefficient that was meant to express how well the equation connected to the actual plot points. This was done to see how well any calculations based on the equation would reflect on the actual situation. Part (g) In terms of the initial hypothesis, the plotted points provide a strong correlation between the fitting of denture for the first time and the weight loss in the first year. However, it must be taken to note that the plotted points show a consistent behaviour for respondents with an initial weight under 80 kg. However, when respondents above 80 kg of initial weight are looked into, it becomes clear that they tend not to follow the initial hypothesis. The best solution would be to carry out more research with respondents with an initial weight of over 80 kg and to possibly model the situation using q uadratic or higher order polynomial functions in order to find a better fit for respondents with an initial weight above 80 kg. References Witte, R.S. ...

Feminist Perspective of The Awakening by Kate Chopin Essay

Feminist Perspective of The Awakening by Kate Chopin - Essay Example Her interest in art is portrayed as one that directly corresponds to her lifestyle. The changes described in the novel relate to the confusion of her function as a female artist. Her ideas have made her confused resulting to the decay of her relationships and ultimately, her own death. The novel has three perspectives. The feminist perspective, historical perspective and the psychoanalytical perspective, however, we get to discuss the feminist in detail using Edna as its symbol. The feminist perspective will be discussed to portray the plight of women in the setting of this novel. Other characters are incorporated in brief discussion to define some norms in the society. The Awakening  is a  novel  written during a time that marriage was perceived to be a traditional rite of passage. The rules that applied then do not apply at the moment as people have evolved. Women at that time were forced to marry someone that was arranged for them. This way, the woman had no opinion on who she would marry. The father of the girl child would select a suitable husband for the girl and the girl had no alternative  other than  to marry the person selected for her (Chopin, 1994). Contrary, in today’s society, women can marry whoever they want to as they have a choice. Women then were forced into loveless marriages and Edna became a victim. This was carried out to create a good picture to the society. The novel outlines the plights  that  the women  faced. Marriage was something that suffocated them and Edna felt it was too much and that she needed to be more than just a mother and a wife. Edna did not want to settle and be like the rest of the women. She chose a different path, one that would not be restrictive to her. This led to her denial of her role to be a mother and a wife. She portrays this rejection slowly by slowly by being against the societal and natural beliefs of motherhood that existed in her society. Edna refuses to be identified as the

A History Of Dna Typing And Analysis Criminology Essay

A History Of Dna Typing And Analysis Criminology Essay The discovery of DNA typing has changed the way crimes are investigated. DNA evidence can be found in blood, tissue, hair, saliva, semen, bone, and the list goes one and on. Every person has unique DNA with the exception of identical twins so being able to interpret this valuable information is incredibly useful. Without DNA typing this evidence could not be tested and interpreted. Many criminal cases would go unsolved and people who committed these crimes would still be unpunished for their actions. DNA typing has only been around since the mid 1980s, but has already had a big impact on the world. So, how did the remarkable tool come about? DNA typing is the use of DNA evidence for identification. The DNA evidence found at a crime scene can either link a person to a crime or it can eliminate them as a suspect. It is based on the observation that the genome of each person and animal is unique. This technology has only been around since the mid 1980, but it has already become an essential part of the crime laboratories investigation of a crime. DNA evidence can be stored for long periods of time making old cases that were once thought to be unsolvable now have new leads. Also DNA evidence can be used to exonerate wrongfully convicted prisoners. DNA typing can be classified into two categories; restricted fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP) methods or Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods. In 1985 an English geneticist named Alec Jeffreys first described DNA typing. Dr. Jeffreys was attempting to trace genetic markers between members of the same family. He was specifically looking for inheritance patterns for illness and disease. X-rays of mini satellite sections of DNA were taken and examined. On September 10, 1984 Dr. Jefreys was examining several x-rays and noticed that the mini satellite section of each individual was unique from one person to another (web.mit). He developed a technique to measure the difference in the length of the DNA sequences. This allowed him to perform human identity tests. The technique Dr. Jeffreys created to examine these variable number of tandem repeats (VNTRs) was called restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) (Butler). Restriction fragment length polymorphisms are variation in the length of a stretch of DNA. DNA is cut by restriction enzymes and these pieces of DNA contain genes and non-coding DNA. The non-coding DNA is made up of regions of repeats of the same sequence of bases. These multiple regions are known as variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR). To develop a DNA profile-using RFLP is to first extract the DNA. Then cut the DNA into fragments by using restriction enzymes. Once the DNA is cut into fragments they are separated by size using gel electrophoresis. The fragments are then immobilized by transferring them into a nylon membrane. The fragments are identified and located by using a solution that contains the desired probes. To visualize the fragments requires long exposure to detection system. This step involves the probes specifically binding to their complementary VNTR fragments. After the solution is washed the RFLP profile is visualized (Butler). Many crime laboratories adopted t his method of analysis and used it throughout the rest of the 1980s and for most of the 1990s, but there were some disadvantages to the RFLP analysis (Budowle). The process takes a lot of time and a lot of effort to. A large sample of un-degraded DNA is required to perform the test. The first time DNA typing was used in a criminal case was in 1986. In the village of Narborough in Leicestershire, England two girls, Lynda Mann and Dawn Ashworth were sexually assaulted and murdered. The murders were done in a similar fashion leading to the suspicion that the two cases were connected in some way. One man confessed to the murder of a girl, but his DNA did not match that of the DNA recovered form semen found at the crime scenes. Blood was collected from more the 4000 men from three surrounding villages. The blood sample collected from Colin Pitchfork match the semen from both murder scenes. He was convicted of both murders and was sentenced to life in prison (Wambaugh). DNA typing evolved from the use of Dr. Jeffreys method of analysis to the use of single locus variable number of tandem repeats by RFLP analysis. DNA typing then moved to the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) that was more sensitive, easier to perform, took less time, and can be automated. In 1983 Kerry Mullis discovered the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which he later won the Nobel piece prize for. This development revolutionized forensic DNA analysis. PCR is used to amplify selected sections of DNA that contains either length or sequence polymorphisms. The DQ-Alpha test was one of the first PCR test to be used in crime laboratories. The DQ-Alpha test was developed in 1991 and was based on the identification of human leukocyte antigens, which are proteins that have a known sequence. The next innovation was developed later in the 90s with short tandem repeats (STR). Short tandem repeats are kind of like VNTRs, but with very short sequences that vary from two to six base pairs . The advantage of using this method is that very small amounts of DNA are required to perform the test (Butler). DNA profiles are also very useful because they can be electronically entered into databases. The Combined DNA Index System or CODIS is a collection of databases of DNA profiles obtained from evidence samples from unsolved crimes and from known individuals convicted of particular crimes (Butler). The FBI who oversees the database started CODIS in 1998. The main goal of the CODIS system is to allow local and national law enforcement laboratories to be able to compare DNA profiles to each other electronically and to be able to link crimes to each other. The system is made up of three database levels: local, state, and national levels. The convicted offenders index qualifications for submitting a sample are determined by state legislation. Convicted offender profiles make up most of a states database. The forensic index is the second most common entry. Forensic profiles consist of forensic evidence in cases. There main purpose is to generated leads in the investigation and possibly conne cting cases to each other. Some states are required to maintain other indices such as a suspect database The National DNA Index currently contains more the seven million offender profiles and almost 269,000 forensic profiles. CODIS has produced over 90,900 hits and has help solve more than 89,600 cases (Butler). DNA analysis has evolved of the past twenty-five years and now it can be used in many different ways. A big way in which DNA is used is in the identification of individuals in mass disasters. One example is the September 11th attacks on the World Trade Centers. DNA was collected from the bone and tissue the unknown bodies, put into a database, and compared with reference samples that were collected. Only 1585 of the 2792 known deaths have been identified, but the database was reopened in 2007 and further investigations are going on. Another effort to identify unknown victims in the DNA Shoah Project, which is a database of family members of people who were in the Holocaust. The main effort of the database is to reunite families who were separated and help identify buried Holocaust victims. DNA analysis isnt just used in solving criminal cases or identifying unknown people, it is also used to check and see if something is authentic. The National Football League uses DNA technology to mark balls used in the Super Bowl to ensure authenticity and stop counterfeit merchandise. The football is marked with an invisible strand of synthetic DNA that can be read by a special laser. A similar thing occurred in the 2000 Olympic games. DNA was taken from unknown athletes and added to ink that was used mark all of the official Olympic gear (DNA Forensics). Without this remarkable tool many of the criminal investigations going on right now would go unsolved. According to Locards Exchange Principle every time a person enters any kind of environment something is left behind and something is taken away. This means that every time a criminal enters a crime scene evidence is left behind and evidence is taken away. An example is a criminal leaves behind fingerprints, pieces of hair, or semen behind at the crime scene. The offender also takes away hair and possible blood from the victim on his clothes or shoes. Without DNA typing this evidence would not be able to be linked to the crime scene. There have also been several cases were DNA evidence has been used to pardon the wrongfully accused. As the technology becomes more advanced and new methods of testing DNA are being created DNA typing will continue to revolutionize the way criminal investigations are solved as well as the creation of more new and exciting ways DNA can be used. DNA Typing Timeline 1980-Ray White describes first polymorphic RFLP marker. 1985 Alec Jeffreys develops multi-locus RFLP probes 1986-DNA testing goes public with cell mark and life codes in United States. 1988-FBI begins DNA casework with single-locus RFLP probes. 1989- TWGDAM established; NY v. Castro case raises issues over quality assurance of laboratories 1990- population statistics used with RFLP methods are questioned; PCR methods start with DQA1. 1991-Fluorescent STR markers first described; Chelex extraction. 1992-NRC 1 report; FBI starts casework with PCR-DQA1. 1993-First STR kit available; sex typing (amelogenin) developed. 1994- Congress authorizes money for upgrading state forensic labs; DNA wars declared over; FBI starts casework with PCR-PM 1995- O.J. Simpson saga makes public more aware of DNA; DNA Advisory Board setup; UK DNA Database established; FBI starts using 1S80/amelogenin. 1996-NRC ÃŽÂ   Report; FBI starts mtDNA testing; first multiplex STR kits become available 1997-Core13 STRs defined; Y chromosome testing with STRs described. 1998-FBI Launches Combined DNA Index System: -CODIS USAs database of DNA profiles. -Only convicted criminals. Thomas Jefferson and Bill Clinton implicated with DNA. 1999- Multiplex STR kits of 13 core STRs and gender markers are validated: FBI stops testing DQA1, PM, D1S80. 2000-FBI and other labs stop running RFLP cases and convert to multiplex STR; PowerPlex 16 kit enables first single amplification of CODIS STRs. 2001-Identifier STR kit released with 5-dye chemistry; first Y- STR kit became available. 2002-FBI mtDNA population database released; Y-STR 20plex published. 2003-50th anniversary of Watson and Cricks discovery of DNA; The final draft of the Human Genome Project is released; US Database has 1 million DNA profiles of convicted offenders; The UK National DNA Database passes the 2 million sample mark. (Timeline taken form Table 1.1 of Forensic DNA Typing by John M. Butler)

Divine Comedy and Dante

Dante Alighieri’s â€Å"The Divine Comedy† is a poem written in first person that tells of Dante’s altered-ego pilgrimage through the three realms of death, Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise while trying to reach spiritual maturity and an understanding of God’s love while attaining salvation. Dante creates an imaginative correspondence between a soul’s sin on Earth and the punishment one receives in Hell. â€Å"In the middle of the journey of our life I came to myself in a dark wood where the straightway was lost. (Canto I, pg. 11). Throughout â€Å"The Divine Comedy†, this is the only reference Dante, in my opinion, is referring to that â€Å"dark place† we all find ourselves in at some point in time in our own life. I, as Dante’s Pilgrim, have found myself in this â€Å"dark place† or â€Å"dark wood† once I lost sight of the â€Å"beaten path† or â€Å"where the straightway was lost† that I was travel ling (life). But, it was during this time that I was lost that I not only found myself, but most importantly, I found my soul. I found the straightway path to my soul while in the dark wood. It is at this dark place or dark wood, that one begins not only to search for answers to one’s sin but to seek answers to the questions of the heart and mind. It is here, of the straightway lost, where the heart and mind no longer struggle for right vs. wrong but to harvest peace. Peace within one’s soul. The peace of one’s soul is born once the heart and mind become one and with this peace one will continue to search for God’s salvation just as Dante’s Pilgrim. The path to Paradise begins in Hell. † (Dante – The Divine Comedy. When Dante enters Hell on Good Friday, he reads the following posted above the gates of Hell as he is about to enter (Canto III, line 9): â€Å"Abandon all hope ye who enter here†. To leave Hell, Dante and his self-ego, must go through all nine circles of Hell, the deeper the circle, the more grave the sin and the sin’s punishment. The gravest punishment is that no one cares nor will help another while in Hell. Dante recognizes that those in Hell have chosen to be in Hell by their own choice but most importantly Dante learns to recognize and detest man’s sinful nature and the power of evil, and the need to guard against it. Hell has no hope. At times, it seems, more often than enough, that both the world and society are becoming increasingly hopeless. To lose hope is to lose life. To lose life is to gain Hell. Living is caring and hoping for the well being of man for today and for days to follow. In the Divine Comedy, to leave Hell, one must go through nine circles of Hell. But, for us, are the nine circles of hell the nine hours in the day that we inject ourselves into society? At the end of every day, do we journey through nine circles of Hell? Do we abandon all hope as we enter the day? â€Å"The path to Paradise begins in Hell. † If this is to be true, then tomorrow may I awake in Paradise.

Woolf & Baym

Virginia Woolf takes into consideration the necessary conditions required for the creation of a literary work. She considers the schooling as the first pre-requisite for this purpose. Shakespeare’s sister is a manifestation of that aggravation that women writers felt over the passage of time over the issue of lack of equal opportunities for women in the literary domain. In this way she contemplates over the socio-historical reason for the inability of female writers to create a high quality work.She looks at the female historical experience and relates it with her thesis. She poses a historical questions why great women writers were absent from the literary realm in the early history of English literature and why there no Shakespeare and/or Chaucer; â€Å"Why no woman wrote a word of that extraordinary literature when every other man, it seemed, was capable of song or sonnet. † (p. 363) Her dismay over the absence of any female literary giant turns into anger and gloomi ness when she learns about the pathos and miseries of female life.Although she tries to search for any available evidence on Shakespeare’s sister but lack of substantiation compel her employ her imaginary and fictional faculties in relating the predicaments of Shakespeare's sister. Woolf's theory postulates that â€Å"For genius like Shakespeare's is not born among labouring, uneducated, servile people† because she is of the view that literary genius is a production leisure class activity. She further thinks that financial independence nurtures freedom of thought and action and this elevated flight of imagination can only produce a work of the calibre of Shakespeare.Women of that time were not free from these obstacles, so were unable to produce a great literary piece. There was female talent and genius but they wasted their talent in making money. â€Å"Hundreds of women began as the eighteenth century drew on to add to their pin money, or to come to the rescue of th eir families by making translations or writing the innumerable bad novels†(366) That is the reason that â€Å"She died young – alas, she never wrote a word. She lies buried where the omnibuses now stop, opposite the Elephant and Castle. † (367)Baym has evaluated the American literary landscape and has tried to search for the reasons for â€Å"the critical invisibility of the many active women authors in America. † Nina Baym considers the similar question about the plight of women writers in American history as Woolf described. But her attitude toward the topic is not literary but rather feminist. She says that women writer â€Å"has entered the literary history as the enemy. † (593). Even the serious critics cast doubt about the female writings. She further elaborated her point of view and questioned the female presentation in the American literature by the male writer.She described three form of male suppression that is manifested subtly in literat ure. Firstly, a woman is equalized with nature or landscape instead of her real life-like portrayal. She considers it a form of subjugation done by the conscious omission of real female characters. Secondly, she is of the view that women has been presented as an epitome of â€Å"entrappers† or â€Å"domesticators†. She considers this misrepresentation and distortion of female character as a manifestation of male suppression. She draws upon various literary sources and texts to support her arguments and to arrive at her conclusions.